Cosmos ATOM

Cosmos ATOM is present on the following networks: Binance Smart Chain, Bitsong, Cosmos, Cronos, Ethereum, Injective, Osmosis.
Binance Smart Chain (BSC) uses a hybrid consensus mechanism called Proof-of-Staked-Authority (PoSA), which combines elements of Delegated-Proof-of-Stake (DPoS) and Proof-of-Authority (PoA). This method is intended to support fast block times and low fees while maintaining a level of decentralisation and security. Validators are responsible for producing blocks, validating transactions, and maintaining network security. The validator set consists of up to 45 validators, including 21 “Cabinet” validators and 24 “Candidate” validators, selected based on bonded stake. A subset of validators is selected per epoch to participate in block production. Token holders may delegate BNB to validators to support their selection. Delegators share in the rewards generated by validators, providing an economic incentive to participate in staking. Validator candidates are nodes that have staked BNB but are not part of the primary validator subset for a given epoch. They may be selected into the active set based on staking rank and can participate in block production with lower probability. Validators are ranked based on the amount of bonded BNB and are updated periodically. Validators must stake BNB as collateral and may be subject to slashing in cases of misbehaviour, including double-signing, malicious voting, or prolonged downtime.
BitSong operates on a Delegated Proof-of-Stake (DPoS) consensus mechanism. In this model, BTSG token holders delegate their tokens to validators, who are responsible for producing and validating new blocks. The selection of validators is based on the amount of BTSG tokens staked and the duration of staking, which determines their voting power in the network's governance processes.
The Cosmos network uses the Cosmos SDK, a modular framework that enables developers to build custom, application-specific blockchains. Cosmos SDK chains rely on Tendermint Core, a Byzantine Fault Tolerant (BFT) Proof of Stake (PoS) consensus engine that supports interoperability and fast transaction finality. Core Components: 1. Tendermint BFT Consensus with Proof of Stake: Validator Selection: Cosmos validators are selected based on the amount of ATOM they stake or receive from delegators. These validators participate in block proposal and validation through a two-thirds majority voting system. Security Threshold: Tendermint BFT ensures network security as long as fewer than one-third of validators act maliciously. 2. Modular Cosmos SDK Framework: Inter-Blockchain Communication (IBC): The Cosmos SDK supports IBC, allowing seamless interoperability between Cosmos-based blockchains. Application Blockchain Interface (ABCI): This interface separates the consensus layer from the application layer, enabling developers to implement custom logic without modifying the consensus engine.
Cronos operates on a Proof of Stake (PoS) model integrated with Tendermint’s Byzantine Fault Tolerant (BFT) consensus, designed for decentralization, security, and interoperability. This model enables validators to be selected based on staking power, rewarding them for securing and validating the network. Core Components: Proof of Stake (PoS) with Tendermint BFT Validator Selection: Validators are chosen based on the amount of CRO tokens staked, securing the network and producing blocks. Delegation Model: Token holders can delegate their CRO to validators, enabling participation in network security without needing to run a validator node. Cosmos SDK and Inter-Blockchain Communication (IBC) Cross-Chain Connectivity: Built on the Cosmos SDK, Cronos enables cross-chain communication, connecting to other Cosmos blockchains and ecosystems such as Ethereum and Binance Smart Chain.
Ethereum uses a Proof-of-Stake (PoS) consensus mechanism introduced with The Merge on 2022-09-15, which replaced the previous Proof-of-Work consensus model. The PoS mechanism is implemented through Gasper, combining Casper-FFG for finality with the LMD-GHOST fork-choice rule for chain selection. Validators participate in consensus by staking ETH through the Beacon Chain. Validators are pseudo-randomly selected to propose new blocks, while other validators attest to the validity of proposed blocks. The network operates using 12-second slots grouped into epochs of 32 slots. Under normal network conditions, finality is typically achieved after two epochs, approximately 12.8 minutes, through Casper-FFG. The LMD-GHOST fork-choice rule determines the canonical chain based on the accumulated weight of validator attestations. Validators that engage in certain malicious behaviour, such as equivocation or contradictory attestations, may be subject to slashing penalties, while offline validators may incur inactivity penalties. Subsequent network upgrades, including Dencun (2024-03-13), Pectra (2025-05-07) and Fusaka (2025-12-03), introduced protocol changes affecting Ethereum’s consensus mechanism and Layer 2 functionality.
Injective operates on a Tendermint-based Proof of Stake (PoS) consensus model, ensuring high throughput and immediate transaction finality. Core Components: Tendermint-based Proof of Stake (PoS): Ensures instant transaction finality and supports efficient block production for high-speed transactions. Validator Selection: Validators are chosen based on the amount of INJ tokens staked, considering both self-staked and delegated tokens, to maintain a decentralized network. Delegation: INJ holders can delegate their tokens to validators, earning a share of staking rewards while participating in network governance. Instant Finality: The Tendermint consensus mechanism provides immediate finality, ensuring transactions cannot be reversed once validated.
Osmosis operates on a Proof of Stake (PoS) consensus mechanism, leveraging the Cosmos SDK and Tendermint Core to provide secure, decentralized, and scalable transaction processing. Core Components: Proof of Stake (PoS): Validators are chosen based on the amount of OSMO tokens they stake or are delegated by other token holders. Validators are responsible for validating transactions, producing blocks, and maintaining network security. Cosmos SDK and Tendermint Core: Osmosis uses Tendermint Core for Byzantine Fault Tolerant (BFT) consensus, ensuring fast finality and resistance to attacks as long as less than one-third of validators are malicious. Decentralized Governance: OSMO token holders can participate in governance by voting on protocol upgrades and network parameters, fostering a community-driven approach to network development.

Cosmos ATOM is present on the following networks: Binance Smart Chain, Bitsong, Cosmos, Cronos, Ethereum, Injective, Osmosis.
Validators must self-delegate BNB in order to participate in the validator system. Validator selection is staking-based, and validators that rank highly enough enter the active set and participate in block production and transaction validation. Validators are rewarded from transaction fees collected on the network. When a block is produced, most of the block fee is allocated to the validator that proposed the block. A portion is retained as validator commission, while the remainder is allocated for distribution through the validator credit structure. BNB holders may delegate BNB to validators. This increases the validator’s total stake and may improve its position in the validator ranking. Delegators share in the rewards earned by the validator they support, after deduction of the validator’s commission. BSC distinguishes between Cabinet, Candidate and Inactive validators. The current model provides that the top 21 validators form the Cabinet, while the validators ranked from 22 to 45 are Candidates. Candidate validators have a smaller chance of producing blocks, but they remain part of the broader validator structure and support network resilience. Validator roles are updated every 24 hours based on the latest staking information. Validators may be penalised for misconduct or poor performance. Slashable events include double signing, malicious fast-finality voting and unavailability. Depending on the violation, consequences may include removal from the validator set, loss of staking rewards and slashing of part of the validator’s self-delegated BNB. The staking model therefore creates an economic incentive for validators and delegators to support reliable validator performance. Transaction fees on BSC are paid in BNB and are intended to compensate validators for maintaining the network. BSC is designed as a comparatively low-fee network, and smart-contract transactions and transfers require gas fees in BNB. BSC does not rely on a separate protocol-level block reward. Instead, staking rewards are derived from transaction fees. Most of the block fee is allocated to the proposing validator, then split between validator commission and delegator-linked reward distribution. Part of transaction-fee revenue is collected through the System Reward Contract and used for designated system purposes, including fast-finality rewards. Deploying and interacting with smart contracts on BSC requires payment of gas fees in BNB. These fees depend on the computational resources required and form part of the network’s overall fee and validator-incentive model.
The native token, BTSG, serves multiple roles within the BitSong ecosystem, including transaction fee payments, staking, and governance participation. Validators earn rewards from transaction fees and block rewards, with a portion of these rewards distributed to delegators after deducting the validator's commission.
The Cosmos network incentivizes both validators and delegators to secure the network through staking rewards, funded by transaction fees and newly minted ATOM. Incentive Mechanisms: 1. Staking Rewards for Validators and Delegators: ATOM Rewards: Validators earn staking rewards in ATOM tokens for participating in consensus, with rewards shared with delegators who stake ATOM through delegation. 2. Slashing for Accountability: Penalties for Misconduct: Validators who act maliciously, such as double-signing or staying offline, face slashing penalties, which remove a portion of their staked ATOM. Delegators may also experience slashing if their chosen validator is penalized, encouraging careful selection of trustworthy validators. Applicable Fees: 1. Transaction Fees: User-Paid Fees in ATOM: All transactions on the Cosmos Hub incur fees paid in ATOM, compensating validators for transaction processing and helping to prevent network spam. 2. Customizable Fee Model: Custom Token Fees: Cosmos SDK allows individual chains to define their own transaction fees in tokens other than ATOM, supporting varied application requirements within the ecosystem.
Cronos incentivizes validators and delegators with staking rewards and transaction fees, aligning economic incentives with network security and growth. Incentive Mechanisms: Staking Rewards Validators and Delegators: Both groups earn CRO rewards for supporting network security. Delegators earn a portion of the validator rewards, promoting broader network participation. Deflationary Mechanism Token Burning: A portion of transaction fees and staking rewards may be periodically burned, reducing CRO supply over time and potentially increasing token value. Applicable Fees: Transaction and Smart Contract Fees Standard Transactions: Users pay CRO for network transactions and dApp interactions, providing a steady income for validators. Ethereum-Compatible Gas Fees: Executing Ethereum-compatible smart contracts incurs gas fees, similar to Ethereum, payable in CRO.
Ethereum’s Proof-of-Stake (PoS) mechanism secures the network through validator incentives and protocol-defined penalties. Validators are required to stake ETH in order to participate in block proposal and attestation activities. A minimum of 32 ETH is required to activate a validator. Following the Pectra upgrade on 2025-05-07, EIP-7251 increased the maximum effective balance per validator from 32 ETH to 2,048 ETH. Validators may receive protocol-defined rewards for proposing blocks, attesting to valid blocks and participating in sync committees. Rewards consist of newly issued ETH and transaction-related fees. Transaction fees on Ethereum follow the mechanism introduced by EIP-1559, under which each transaction includes a base fee that is burned at the protocol level and an optional priority fee paid to the validator proposing the relevant block. Validators that engage in certain malicious behaviour, including equivocation or contradictory attestations, may be subject to slashing penalties. Validators that fail to participate correctly in consensus activities may also incur inactivity penalties. These mechanisms are intended to support validator participation and the economic security of the Ethereum network.
Injective incentivizes network participation through staking rewards and a unique transaction fee model that supports long-term value for INJ tokens. Incentive Mechanisms: Staking Rewards: INJ holders earn rewards for staking their tokens, encouraging active participation in securing the network. Validator Rewards: Validators receive staking rewards and transaction fees for processing transactions and maintaining network security. Applicable Fees: Transaction Fees: Users pay fees in INJ tokens for network transactions, including smart contract execution and trading. Fee Structure: A portion of transaction fees is burned via a weekly on-chain auction, reducing the overall supply of INJ tokens and supporting a deflationary tokenomics model.
Osmosis incentivizes validators, delegators, and liquidity providers through a combination of staking rewards, transaction fees, and liquidity incentives. Incentive Mechanisms: Validator Rewards: Validators earn rewards from transaction fees and block rewards, distributed in OSMO tokens, for their role in securing the network and processing transactions. Delegators who stake their OSMO tokens with validators receive a share of these rewards. Liquidity Provider Rewards: Users providing liquidity to Osmosis pools earn swap fees and may receive additional incentives in the form of OSMO tokens to encourage liquidity provision. Superfluid Staking: Liquidity providers can participate in superfluid staking, staking a portion of their OSMO tokens within liquidity pools. This mechanism allows users to earn staking rewards while maintaining liquidity in the pools. Applicable Fees: Transaction Fees: Users pay transaction fees in OSMO tokens for network activities, including swaps, staking, and governance participation. These fees are distributed to validators and delegators, incentivizing their continued participation and support for network security.

The energy consumption of this asset is aggregated across multiple components:
For the calculation of energy consumptions, the so called 'bottom-up' approach is being used. The nodes are considered to be the central factor for the energy consumption of the network. These assumptions are made on the basis of empirical findings through the use of public information sites, open-source crawlers and crawlers developed in-house. The main determinants for estimating the hardware used within the network are the requirements for operating the client software. The energy consumption of the hardware devices was measured in certified test laboratories. When calculating the energy consumption, we used - if available - the Functionally Fungible Group Digital Token Identifier (FFG DTI) to determine all implementations of the asset of question in scope and we update the mappings regulary, based on data of the Digital Token Identifier Foundation. The information regarding the hardware used and the number of participants in the network is based on assumptions that are verified with best effort using empirical data. In general, participants are assumed to be largely economically rational. As a precautionary principle, we make assumptions on the conservative side when in doubt, i.e. making higher estimates for the adverse impacts.
To determine the energy consumption of a token, the energy consumption of the network(s) binance_smart_chain, bitsong, cosmos, cronos, ethereum, injective, osmosis is calculated first. For the energy consumption of the token, a fraction of the energy consumption of the network is attributed to the token, which is determined based on the activity of the crypto-asset within the network. When calculating the energy consumption, the Functionally Fungible Group Digital Token Identifier (FFG DTI) is used - if available - to determine all implementations of the asset in scope. The mappings are updated regularly, based on data of the Digital Token Identifier Foundation. The information regarding the hardware used and the number of participants in the network is based on assumptions that are verified with best effort using empirical data. In general, participants are assumed to be largely economically rational. As a precautionary principle, we make assumptions on the conservative side when in doubt, i.e. making higher estimates for the adverse impacts.